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B12 is an essential nutrient, and its deficiency is common, especially among individuals following restricted diets like vegetarianism or veganism, pregnant or breastfeeding women, older adults, those who have undergone gastrointestinal surgery or have gastrointestinal disorders, and people with an autoimmune condition known as pernicious anaemia

B12 status does not directly influence most of those risks, which is why I have not covered them in depth here

It also examines the expression of early-response genes in brain regions and the activity of biosynthetic and proteolytic processes

Dietary insufficiency Vitamin B12 is found almost exclusively in animal products, such as meat, dairy, and eggs