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AGE/RAGE promotes thecalcification of human aortic smooth muscle cells via the Wnt/-catenin axis

However, intranasal administration is also considered an efficient route for systemic effects due to the dense vasculature of the nasal mucosa

Therefore, targeting the IL-33/ST2 axis in therapy requires a precise balance of its dual functions, such as developing sST2 antagonists to block pro-inflammatory signals while retaining the activation of membrane-bound ST2 on Tregs, providing a new direction for personalized treatment of RA

Among these, the purinergic P2X 7 receptor, activated by high extracellular ATP levels, promotes neuroinflammation and cell death in neurodegenerative conditions such as PD, AD, and MS [331, 421]