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Intracellular succinate can also be exported to the extracellular space and enter the circulatory system, such as in skeletal muscle cells, where succinate can be secreted into the extracellular milieu by MCT1 and bind to the succinate receptor-1 (SUCNR-1) on non-myofibrillar resident cells, activating downstream signaling pathways like ERK1/2 and PI3K-AKT [75, 76]

The release of cytochrome c causes loss of the mitochondrial membrane potential (m), which is a marker for mitochondrial dysfunction 39

Statistical Analyses Statistical analyses of cell experiments were conducted by using the GraphPad Prism (GraphPad Software, version 9, San Diego, CA)

MGF is expressed as a pulse following muscle damage, making it a first-responder in the muscle regeneration sequence