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ROS generally attacks on cellular proteins, nucleic acid, lipids and key biomolecules which leads to membrane damage, membrane depolarization, electron transfer chain impairment and NADPH-like system activation [315]

95,96,97 NAD + and aging An imbalance in the NAD + /NADH or NADP + /NADPH ratio can destabilize cellular homeostasis, causing not only pellagra but also aging, neurodegenerative diseases, inflammatory alterations, infections, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer

Obscuration refers to the proportion of light scattered and absorbed by the particles in the measurement zone, which indicates the concentration of the suspension

Abstract Excessive generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), particularly superoxide anion (O 2 ), is a central driver of oxidative stress and contributes to cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases including hypertension, atherosclerosis, diabetes, and Alzheimers disease