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The samples were transferred to microcentrifuge tubes, vortex mixed, and allowed to extract on ice for 10 min

However, AMPK activation has far-reaching implications, impacting key pathological processes, such as inflammatory signaling, oxidative stress regulation, and cellular maintenance pathways [158], all of which are deeply implicated in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders

Novak et al., 2000

7.3 Overarching challenges and future directions Future research priorities include clarifying the context-dependent duality of IGF-1, delineating its protective versus pathogenic roles across disease stages and cell types, and mapping crosstalk with core PAH pathways such as BMPR2/TGF- signaling